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# 28.12. `inspect` — Inspect live objects

Source code: Lib/inspect.py

The `inspect` module provides several useful functions to help get information about live objects such as modules, classes, methods, functions, tracebacks, frame objects, and code objects. For example, it can help you examine the contents of a class, retrieve the source code of a method, extract and format the argument list for a function, or get all the information you need to display a detailed traceback.

There are four main kinds of services provided by this module: type checking, getting source code, inspecting classes and functions, and examining the interpreter stack.

## 28.12.1. Types and members

The `getmembers()` function retrieves the members of an object such as a class or module. The sixteen functions whose names begin with “is” are mainly provided as convenient choices for the second argument to `getmembers()`. They also help you determine when you can expect to find the following special attributes:

Type | Attribute | Description
--- | --- | ---
module | __doc__ | documentation string
| __file__ | filename (missing for built-in modules)
class | __doc__ | documentation string
| __module__ | name of module in which this class was defined
method | __doc__ | documentation string
| __name__ | name with which this method was defined
| __func__ | function object containing implementation of method
| __self__ | instance to which this method is bound, or `None`
function | __doc__ | documentation string
| __name__ | name with which this function was defined
| __code__ | code object containing compiled function bytecode
| __defaults__ | tuple of any default values for arguments
| __globals__ | global namespace in which this function was defined
traceback | tb_frame | frame object at this level
| tb_lasti | index of last attempted instruction in bytecode
| tb_lineno | current line number in Python source code
| tb_next | next inner traceback object (called by this level)
frame | f_back | next outer frame object (this frame’s caller)
| f_builtins | builtins namespace seen by this frame
| f_code | code object being executed in this frame
| f_globals | global namespace seen by this frame
| f_lasti | index of last attempted instruction in bytecode
| f_lineno | current line number in Python source code
| f_locals | local namespace seen by this frame
| f_restricted | 0 or 1 if frame is in restricted execution mode
| f_trace | tracing function for this frame, or `None`
code | co_argcount | number of arguments (not including * or ** args)
| co_code | string of raw compiled bytecode
| co_consts | tuple of constants used in the bytecode
| co_filename | name of file in which this code object was created
| co_firstlineno | number of first line in Python source code
| co_flags | bitmap: 1=optimized `|` 2=newlocals `|` 4=*arg `|` 8=**arg
| co_lnotab | encoded mapping of line numbers to bytecode indices
| co_name | name with which this code object was defined
| co_names | tuple of names of local variables
| co_nlocals | number of local variables
| co_stacksize | virtual machine stack space required
| co_varnames | tuple of names of arguments and local variables
builtin | __doc__ | documentation string
| __name__ | original name of this function or method
| __self__ | instance to which a method is bound, or `None`

`inspect.``getmembers`(object[, predicate])

  Return all the members of an object in a list of (name, value) pairs sorted by name. If the optional predicate argument is supplied, only members for which the predicate returns a true value are included.

  Note

  `getmembers()` does not return metaclass attributes when the argument is a class (this behavior is inherited from the `dir()` function).

`inspect.``getmoduleinfo`(path)

  Returns a named tuple `ModuleInfo(name, suffix, mode, module_type)` of values that describe how Python will interpret the file identified by path if it is a module, or `None` if it would not be identified as a module. In that tuple, name is the name of the module without the name of any enclosing package, suffix is the trailing part of the file name (which may not be a dot-delimited extension), mode is the `open()` mode that would be used (`'r'` or `'rb'`), and module_type is an integer giving the type of the module. module_type will have a value which can be compared to the constants defined in the `imp` module; see the documentation for that module for more information on module types.

  Deprecated since version 3.3: You may check the file path’s suffix against the supported suffixes listed in `importlib.machinery` to infer the same information.

`inspect.``getmodulename`(path)

  Return the name of the module named by the file path, without including the names of enclosing packages. The file extension is checked against all of the entries in `importlib.machinery.all_suffixes()`. If it matches, the final path component is returned with the extension removed. Otherwise, `None` is returned.

  Note that this function only returns a meaningful name for actual Python modules - paths that potentially refer to Python packages will still return `None`.

  Changed in version 3.3: This function is now based directly on `importlib` rather than the deprecated `getmoduleinfo()`.

`inspect.``ismodule`(object)

  Return true if the object is a module.

`inspect.``isclass`(object)

  Return true if the object is a class, whether built-in or created in Python code.

`inspect.``ismethod`(object)

  Return true if the object is a bound method written in Python.

`inspect.``isfunction`(object)

  Return true if the object is a Python function, which includes functions created by a lambda expression.

`inspect.``isgeneratorfunction`(object)

  Return true if the object is a Python generator function.

`inspect.``isgenerator`(object)

  Return true if the object is a generator.

`inspect.``istraceback`(object)

  Return true if the object is a traceback.

`inspect.``isframe`(object)

  Return true if the object is a frame.

`inspect.``iscode`(object)

  Return true if the object is a code.

`inspect.``isbuiltin`(object)

  Return true if the object is a built-in function or a bound built-in method.

`inspect.``isroutine`(object)

  Return true if the object is a user-defined or built-in function or method.

`inspect.``isabstract`(object)

  Return true if the object is an abstract base class.

`inspect.``ismethoddescriptor`(object)

  Return true if the object is a method descriptor, but not if `ismethod()`, `isclass()`, `isfunction()` or `isbuiltin()` are true.

  This, for example, is true of `int.__add__`. An object passing this test has a `__get__` attribute but not a `__set__` attribute, but beyond that the set of attributes varies. `__name__` is usually sensible, and `__doc__` often is.

  Methods implemented via descriptors that also pass one of the other tests return false from the `ismethoddescriptor()` test, simply because the other tests promise more – you can, e.g., count on having the `__func__` attribute (etc) when an object passes `ismethod()`.

`inspect.``isdatadescriptor`(object)

  Return true if the object is a data descriptor.

  Data descriptors have both a `__get__` and a `__set__` attribute. Examples are properties (defined in Python), getsets, and members. The latter two are defined in C and there are more specific tests available for those types, which is robust across Python implementations. Typically, data descriptors will also have `__name__` and `__doc__` attributes (properties, getsets, and members have both of these attributes), but this is not guaranteed.

`inspect.``isgetsetdescriptor`(object)

  Return true if the object is a getset descriptor.

  CPython implementation detail: getsets are attributes defined in extension modules via `PyGetSetDef` structures. For Python implementations without such types, this method will always return `False`.

`inspect.``ismemberdescriptor`(object)

  Return true if the object is a member descriptor.

  CPython implementation detail: Member descriptors are attributes defined in extension modules via `PyMemberDef` structures. For Python implementations without such types, this method will always return `False`.

## 28.12.2. Retrieving source code

`inspect.``getdoc`(object)

  Get the documentation string for an object, cleaned up with `cleandoc()`.

`inspect.``getcomments`(object)

  Return in a single string any lines of comments immediately preceding the object’s source code (for a class, function, or method), or at the top of the Python source file (if the object is a module).

`inspect.``getfile`(object)

  Return the name of the (text or binary) file in which an object was defined. This will fail with a `TypeError` if the object is a built-in module, class, or function.

`inspect.``getmodule`(object)

  Try to guess which module an object was defined in.

`inspect.``getsourcefile`(object)

  Return the name of the Python source file in which an object was defined. This will fail with a `TypeError` if the object is a built-in module, class, or function.

`inspect.``getsourcelines`(object)

  Return a list of source lines and starting line number for an object. The argument may be a module, class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code object. The source code is returned as a list of the lines corresponding to the object and the line number indicates where in the original source file the first line of code was found. An `OSError` is raised if the source code cannot be retrieved.

  Changed in version 3.3: `OSError` is raised instead of `IOError`, now an alias of the former.

`inspect.``getsource`(object)

  Return the text of the source code for an object. The argument may be a module, class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code object. The source code is returned as a single string. An `OSError` is raised if the source code cannot be retrieved.

  Changed in version 3.3: `OSError` is raised instead of `IOError`, now an alias of the former.

`inspect.``cleandoc`(doc)

  Clean up indentation from docstrings that are indented to line up with blocks of code. Any whitespace that can be uniformly removed from the second line onwards is removed. Also, all tabs are expanded to spaces.

## 28.12.3. Introspecting callables with the Signature object

New in version 3.3.

The Signature object represents the call signature of a callable object and its return annotation. To retrieve a Signature object, use the `signature()` function.

`inspect.``signature`(callable)

  Return a `Signature` object for the given `callable`:

      >>> from inspect import signature
      >>> def foo(a, *, b:int, **kwargs):
      ...     pass

      >>> sig = signature(foo)

      >>> str(sig)
      '(a, *, b:int, **kwargs)'

      >>> str(sig.parameters['b'])
      'b:int'

      >>> sig.parameters['b'].annotation
      <class 'int'>

  Accepts a wide range of python callables, from plain functions and classes to `functools.partial()` objects.

  Note

  Some callables may not be introspectable in certain implementations of Python. For example, in CPython, built-in functions defined in C provide no metadata about their arguments.

class `inspect.``Signature`

  A Signature object represents the call signature of a function and its return annotation. For each parameter accepted by the function it stores a `Parameter` object in its `parameters` collection.

  Signature objects are immutable. Use `Signature.replace()` to make a modified copy.

  `empty`

    A special class-level marker to specify absence of a return annotation.

  `parameters`

    An ordered mapping of parameters’ names to the corresponding `Parameter` objects.

  `return_annotation`

    The “return” annotation for the callable. If the callable has no “return” annotation, this attribute is set to `Signature.empty`.

  `bind`(*args, **kwargs)

    Create a mapping from positional and keyword arguments to parameters. Returns `BoundArguments` if `*args` and `**kwargs` match the signature, or raises a `TypeError`.

  `bind_partial`(*args, **kwargs)

    Works the same way as `Signature.bind()`, but allows the omission of some required arguments (mimics `functools.partial()` behavior.) Returns `BoundArguments`, or raises a `TypeError` if the passed arguments do not match the signature.

  `replace`([parameters], *[, return_annotation])

    Create a new Signature instance based on the instance replace was invoked on. It is possible to pass different `parameters` and/or `return_annotation` to override the corresponding properties of the base signature. To remove return_annotation from the copied Signature, pass in `Signature.empty`.

        >>> def test(a, b):
        ...     pass
        >>> sig = signature(test)
        >>> new_sig = sig.replace(return_annotation="new return anno")
        >>> str(new_sig)
        "(a, b) -> 'new return anno'"

class `inspect.``Parameter`

  Parameter objects are immutable. Instead of modifying a Parameter object, you can use `Parameter.replace()` to create a modified copy.

  `empty`

    A special class-level marker to specify absence of default values and annotations.

  `name`

    The name of the parameter as a string. Must be a valid python identifier name (with the exception of `POSITIONAL_ONLY` parameters, which can have it set to `None`).

  `default`

    The default value for the parameter. If the parameter has no default value, this attribute is set to `Parameter.empty`.

  `annotation`

    The annotation for the parameter. If the parameter has no annotation, this attribute is set to `Parameter.empty`.

  `kind`

    Describes how argument values are bound to the parameter. Possible values (accessible via `Parameter`, like `Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY`):

    Name | Meaning
    --- | ---
    POSITIONAL_ONLY | Value must be supplied as a positional argument. Python has no explicit syntax for defining positional-only parameters, but many built-in and extension module functions (especially those that accept only one or two parameters) accept them.
    POSITIONAL_OR_KEYWORD | Value may be supplied as either a keyword or positional argument (this is the standard binding behaviour for functions implemented in Python.)
    VAR_POSITIONAL | A tuple of positional arguments that aren’t bound to any other parameter. This corresponds to a `*args` parameter in a Python function definition.
    KEYWORD_ONLY | Value must be supplied as a keyword argument. Keyword only parameters are those which appear after a `*` or `*args` entry in a Python function definition.
    VAR_KEYWORD | A dict of keyword arguments that aren’t bound to any other parameter. This corresponds to a `**kwargs` parameter in a Python function definition.

    Example: print all keyword-only arguments without default values:

        >>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
        ...     pass

        >>> sig = signature(foo)
        >>> for param in sig.parameters.values():
        ...     if (param.kind == param.KEYWORD_ONLY and
        ...                        param.default is param.empty):
        ...         print('Parameter:', param)
        Parameter: c

  `replace`(*[, name][, kind][, default][, annotation])

    Create a new Parameter instance based on the instance replaced was invoked on. To override a `Parameter` attribute, pass the corresponding argument. To remove a default value or/and an annotation from a Parameter, pass `Parameter.empty`.

        >>> from inspect import Parameter
        >>> param = Parameter('foo', Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY, default=42)
        >>> str(param)
        'foo=42'

        >>> str(param.replace()) # Will create a shallow copy of 'param'
        'foo=42'

        >>> str(param.replace(default=Parameter.empty, annotation='spam'))
        "foo:'spam'"

class `inspect.``BoundArguments`

  Result of a `Signature.bind()` or `Signature.bind_partial()` call. Holds the mapping of arguments to the function’s parameters.

  `arguments`

    An ordered, mutable mapping (`collections.OrderedDict`) of parameters’ names to arguments’ values. Contains only explicitly bound arguments. Changes in `arguments` will reflect in `args` and `kwargs`.

    Should be used in conjunction with `Signature.parameters` for any argument processing purposes.

    Note

    Arguments for which `Signature.bind()` or `Signature.bind_partial()` relied on a default value are skipped. However, if needed, it is easy to include them.

        >>> def foo(a, b=10):
        ...     pass

        >>> sig = signature(foo)
        >>> ba = sig.bind(5)

        >>> ba.args, ba.kwargs
        ((5,), {})

        >>> for param in sig.parameters.values():
        ...     if param.name not in ba.arguments:
        ...         ba.arguments[param.name] = param.default

        >>> ba.args, ba.kwargs
        ((5, 10), {})

  `args`

    A tuple of positional arguments values. Dynamically computed from the `arguments` attribute.

  `kwargs`

    A dict of keyword arguments values. Dynamically computed from the `arguments` attribute.

  The `args` and `kwargs` properties can be used to invoke functions:

      def test(a, *, b):
         ...

      sig = signature(test)
      ba = sig.bind(10, b=20)
      test(*ba.args, **ba.kwargs)

See also

PEP 362 - Function Signature Object.
  The detailed specification, implementation details and examples.

## 28.12.4. Classes and functions

`inspect.``getclasstree`(classes, unique=False)

  Arrange the given list of classes into a hierarchy of nested lists. Where a nested list appears, it contains classes derived from the class whose entry immediately precedes the list. Each entry is a 2-tuple containing a class and a tuple of its base classes. If the unique argument is true, exactly one entry appears in the returned structure for each class in the given list. Otherwise, classes using multiple inheritance and their descendants will appear multiple times.

`inspect.``getargspec`(func)

  Get the names and default values of a Python function’s arguments. A named tuple `ArgSpec(args, varargs, keywords, defaults)` is returned. args is a list of the argument names. varargs and keywords are the names of the `*` and `**` arguments or `None`. defaults is a tuple of default argument values or `None` if there are no default arguments; if this tuple has n elements, they correspond to the last n elements listed in args.

  Deprecated since version 3.0: Use `getfullargspec()` instead, which provides information about keyword-only arguments and annotations.

`inspect.``getfullargspec`(func)

  Get the names and default values of a Python function’s arguments. A named tuple is returned:

  `FullArgSpec(args, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs, kwonlydefaults, annotations)`

  args is a list of the argument names. varargs and varkw are the names of the `*` and `**` arguments or `None`. defaults is an n-tuple of the default values of the last n arguments, or `None` if there are no default arguments. kwonlyargs is a list of keyword-only argument names. kwonlydefaults is a dictionary mapping names from kwonlyargs to defaults. annotations is a dictionary mapping argument names to annotations.

  The first four items in the tuple correspond to `getargspec()`.

  Note

  Consider using the new Signature Object interface, which provides a better way of introspecting functions.

`inspect.``getargvalues`(frame)

  Get information about arguments passed into a particular frame. A named tuple `ArgInfo(args, varargs, keywords, locals)` is returned. args is a list of the argument names. varargs and keywords are the names of the `*` and `**` arguments or `None`. locals is the locals dictionary of the given frame.

`inspect.``formatargspec`(args[, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs, kwonlydefaults, annotations, formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue, formatreturns, formatannotations])

  Format a pretty argument spec from the values returned by `getargspec()` or `getfullargspec()`.

  The first seven arguments are (`args`, `varargs`, `varkw`, `defaults`, `kwonlyargs`, `kwonlydefaults`, `annotations`). The other five arguments are the corresponding optional formatting functions that are called to turn names and values into strings. The last argument is an optional function to format the sequence of arguments.

`inspect.``formatargvalues`(args[, varargs, varkw, locals, formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue])

  Format a pretty argument spec from the four values returned by `getargvalues()`. The format* arguments are the corresponding optional formatting functions that are called to turn names and values into strings.

`inspect.``getmro`(cls)

  Return a tuple of class cls’s base classes, including cls, in method resolution order. No class appears more than once in this tuple. Note that the method resolution order depends on cls’s type. Unless a very peculiar user-defined metatype is in use, cls will be the first element of the tuple.

`inspect.``getcallargs`(func[, *args][, **kwds])

  Bind the args and kwds to the argument names of the Python function or method func, as if it was called with them. For bound methods, bind also the first argument (typically named `self`) to the associated instance. A dict is returned, mapping the argument names (including the names of the `*` and `**` arguments, if any) to their values from args and kwds. In case of invoking func incorrectly, i.e. whenever `func(*args, **kwds)` would raise an exception because of incompatible signature, an exception of the same type and the same or similar message is raised. For example:

      >>> from inspect import getcallargs
      >>> def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named):
      ...     pass
      >>> getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3) == {'a': 1, 'named': {}, 'b': 2, 'pos': (3,)}
      True
      >>> getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4) == {'a': 2, 'named': {'x': 4}, 'b': 1, 'pos': ()}
      True
      >>> getcallargs(f)
      Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
      TypeError: f() missing 1 required positional argument: 'a'

  New in version 3.2.

  Note

  Consider using the new `Signature.bind()` instead.

`inspect.``getclosurevars`(func)

  Get the mapping of external name references in a Python function or method func to their current values. A named tuple `ClosureVars(nonlocals, globals, builtins, unbound)` is returned. nonlocals maps referenced names to lexical closure variables, globals to the function’s module globals and builtins to the builtins visible from the function body. unbound is the set of names referenced in the function that could not be resolved at all given the current module globals and builtins.

  `TypeError` is raised if func is not a Python function or method.

  New in version 3.3.

## 28.12.5. The interpreter stack

When the following functions return “frame records,” each record is a tuple of six items: the frame object, the filename, the line number of the current line, the function name, a list of lines of context from the source code, and the index of the current line within that list.

Note

Keeping references to frame objects, as found in the first element of the frame records these functions return, can cause your program to create reference cycles. Once a reference cycle has been created, the lifespan of all objects which can be accessed from the objects which form the cycle can become much longer even if Python’s optional cycle detector is enabled. If such cycles must be created, it is important to ensure they are explicitly broken to avoid the delayed destruction of objects and increased memory consumption which occurs.

Though the cycle detector will catch these, destruction of the frames (and local variables) can be made deterministic by removing the cycle in a `finally` clause. This is also important if the cycle detector was disabled when Python was compiled or using `gc.disable()`. For example:

    def handle_stackframe_without_leak():
        frame = inspect.currentframe()
        try:
            # do something with the frame
        finally:
            del frame

The optional context argument supported by most of these functions specifies the number of lines of context to return, which are centered around the current line.

`inspect.``getframeinfo`(frame, context=1)

  Get information about a frame or traceback object. A named tuple `Traceback(filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)` is returned.

`inspect.``getouterframes`(frame, context=1)

  Get a list of frame records for a frame and all outer frames. These frames represent the calls that lead to the creation of frame. The first entry in the returned list represents frame; the last entry represents the outermost call on frame‘s stack.

`inspect.``getinnerframes`(traceback, context=1)

  Get a list of frame records for a traceback’s frame and all inner frames. These frames represent calls made as a consequence of frame. The first entry in the list represents traceback; the last entry represents where the exception was raised.

`inspect.``currentframe`()

  Return the frame object for the caller’s stack frame.

  CPython implementation detail: This function relies on Python stack frame support in the interpreter, which isn’t guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python. If running in an implementation without Python stack frame support this function returns `None`.

`inspect.``stack`(context=1)

  Return a list of frame records for the caller’s stack. The first entry in the returned list represents the caller; the last entry represents the outermost call on the stack.

`inspect.``trace`(context=1)

  Return a list of frame records for the stack between the current frame and the frame in which an exception currently being handled was raised in. The first entry in the list represents the caller; the last entry represents where the exception was raised.

## 28.12.6. Fetching attributes statically

Both `getattr()` and `hasattr()` can trigger code execution when fetching or checking for the existence of attributes. Descriptors, like properties, will be invoked and `__getattr__()` and `__getattribute__()` may be called.

For cases where you want passive introspection, like documentation tools, this can be inconvenient. `getattr_static()` has the same signature as `getattr()` but avoids executing code when it fetches attributes.

`inspect.``getattr_static`(obj, attr, default=None)

  Retrieve attributes without triggering dynamic lookup via the descriptor protocol, `__getattr__()` or `__getattribute__()`.

  Note: this function may not be able to retrieve all attributes that getattr can fetch (like dynamically created attributes) and may find attributes that getattr can’t (like descriptors that raise AttributeError). It can also return descriptors objects instead of instance members.

  If the instance `__dict__` is shadowed by another member (for example a property) then this function will be unable to find instance members.

  New in version 3.2.

`getattr_static()` does not resolve descriptors, for example slot descriptors or getset descriptors on objects implemented in C. The descriptor object is returned instead of the underlying attribute.

You can handle these with code like the following. Note that for arbitrary getset descriptors invoking these may trigger code execution:

    # example code for resolving the builtin descriptor types
    class _foo:
        __slots__ = ['foo']

    slot_descriptor = type(_foo.foo)
    getset_descriptor = type(type(open(__file__)).name)
    wrapper_descriptor = type(str.__dict__['__add__'])
    descriptor_types = (slot_descriptor, getset_descriptor, wrapper_descriptor)

    result = getattr_static(some_object, 'foo')
    if type(result) in descriptor_types:
        try:
            result = result.__get__()
        except AttributeError:
            # descriptors can raise AttributeError to
            # indicate there is no underlying value
            # in which case the descriptor itself will
            # have to do
            pass

## 28.12.7. Current State of a Generator

When implementing coroutine schedulers and for other advanced uses of generators, it is useful to determine whether a generator is currently executing, is waiting to start or resume or execution, or has already terminated. `getgeneratorstate()` allows the current state of a generator to be determined easily.

`inspect.``getgeneratorstate`(generator)

  Get current state of a generator-iterator.

  Possible states are:
    - GEN_CREATED: Waiting to start execution.
    - GEN_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter.
    - GEN_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at a yield expression.
    - GEN_CLOSED: Execution has completed.

  New in version 3.2.

The current internal state of the generator can also be queried. This is mostly useful for testing purposes, to ensure that internal state is being updated as expected:

`inspect.``getgeneratorlocals`(generator)

  Get the mapping of live local variables in generator to their current values. A dictionary is returned that maps from variable names to values. This is the equivalent of calling `locals()` in the body of the generator, and all the same caveats apply.

  If generator is a generator with no currently associated frame, then an empty dictionary is returned. `TypeError` is raised if generator is not a Python generator object.

  CPython implementation detail: This function relies on the generator exposing a Python stack frame for introspection, which isn’t guaranteed to be the case in all implementations of Python. In such cases, this function will always return an empty dictionary.

  New in version 3.3.

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